working equids

What is a working equid? Analysis of current terminology and a suggested definition

Equids are engaged in myriad types of work across the world, with contexts and industries varying widely between high-, middle- and low-income countries as classified by the World Bank. Through a comprehensive abstract search and literature review, we examined the usage and context of terms associated with working equids in high-income countries (HICs), upper-middle-income countries (UMICs), lower-middle-income countries (LMICs), and low-income countries (LICs). Analysis showed that the search term used was significantly associated with World Bank country income classification. All search terms except two returned a significantly higher number of papers for higher-income countries compared to lower-income countries. The two exceptions were “working equid” and “draft equid”, which returned significantly more papers for lower-income countries than higher-income countries. Both terms also returned papers from high-income and upper-middle-income countries, but these were always in the context of low-resource settings and rural or marginalised communities, of which we provide examples in the discussion. We propose that the term “working equid” should be used to describe “any equid engaged in physical labour that provides a significant or direct contribution to the economic livelihood, sustenance or support of the owner/user’s family, typically within a low resource setting”. Our review highlights the intricate interplay between socioeconomic factors and examines how equids are described in the literature. The lack of a universally accepted definition leads to challenges in policy formulation, resource allocation, and welfare standards development, particularly in LMICs and LICs where working equids are crucial to livelihoods. This study underscores the need for a more inclusive and comprehensive approach to terminology, advocating for future research to bridge linguistic and cultural gaps in understanding working equids globally. Such efforts are vital for equitable and effective welfare standards and policy development for these animals.

Journal
Volume
14
Issue
4
Start page
2026
Publication date
Research output

Multipurpose donkey and hybrid cart prototype

Status
Applicant(s)
Start date
End date

The use of equid-drawn vehicles is a common practice in many parts of the world, with vehicles usually being manufactured by local craftsmen, or by the users themselves. There is a huge variety of models, with 2-wheel carts being the most widely used as they are cheaper and easier to manufacture. 

Results obtained by TDS in recent studies which focused on both harnesses and welfare assessment of working equids, showed that poorly designed and ill-fitted harness leads to inefficient transfer of power and serious health and welfare issues. Carts may also play an important role here, as their incorrect use, often combined with poorly designed models, can be a cause or at least a predisposing factor. 

This research project intends to develop an easy to build multipurpose prototype 2-wheel cart for donkeys and hybrids, replicable anywhere in the world, using local resources. The project also includes the creation of a set of guidelines focused on good features of a cart and its correct use, including hitching techniques, pulling capacity of working equids, and good practices for the use of the cart. 

The research team involved in this project will gather a team of internal and external experts to achieve the aims described above. Following the strategy developed in the harness project, on-line resources focused on the DIY process of the prototype will be developed and will include all relevant theory and training material. 

From a strategic point of view, this project aligns closely with The Donkey Sanctuary Strategy, as it informs welfare, community, voice, and knowledge. The project will provide welfare improvements for donkeys and hybrids in a sustainable way, providing owners and users with support in providing good welfare for their donkeys and hybrids, by supporting them in cart building. The project will increase awareness of the needs of donkeys and hybrids when using carts and will involve knowledge sharing with communities and experts, using research to create learning resources and achieve positive practical outcomes for these animals.

Methodology

Phase 0: Invite a group of experts. 

List of experts: 

  • The Donkey Sanctuary team: - Welfare Assessment team: João Brandão Rodrigues; - Education team: Michelle Whitham-Jones, Tracey Warren; - Research team: Laura Kubasiewicz; - Equine Operations (Sanctuary): Andrew Judge, Maxine Carter; - El Refugio del Burrito: Francisco Zambrano; - Regional teams (IPP): Luis Aguilar (México), Asmamaw Kassaye (Ethiopia), Obadiah Sing'Oei (Kenya). 
  • FECTU: Cesc Aldabó. 
  • School of Technology and Management, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança: Luis Queijo. 
  • University of Melbourne: Mathilde Merridale. 

Phase 1: Online research on existing animal-drawn vehicles used worldwide. Selection of best models / desirable features of different models. 

Phase 2: Online discussion among experts, focused on aims 1 to 4. Creation of technical drawings of the prototype. Development of guidelines. 

Phase 3: Complete aims 5. Filming of the do-it-yourself process taking place at the School of Technology and Management (Bragança, Portugal) facilities, in straight collaboration with their technical staff. Build the DIY donkey cart online course. 

Phase 4: Complete aim 6. Lab tests to simulate different scenarios related with position of the cargo and the operator, to take place at the School of Technology and Management facilities, using our multipurpose donkey cart prototype. Specific tests will be decided by experts, depending on the final aspect of the prototype. 

Phase 5*: Field trial of the multipurpose animal-drawn prototype (place(s) to be decided). Phase 5 is the only phase directly involving donkeys. Prior to this phase, an Ethical and health and safety considerations form will be submitted for approval, ensuring that there are clear ethical standards in place for any donkeys involved in the trials. 

Phase 6: Complete aim 7 and 8: Selection and training of local manufacturers / Train the trainers’ process

Aims

The development of a multipurpose prototype 2-wheel cart for donkeys and hybrids, and the creation of guidelines that improve the knowledge and skills of equid owners in relation of how to properly use the cart and interact with the equids, will undoubtedly improve the welfare of the donkeys and hybrids. The development of on-line contents and their inclusion in a Train the Trainers approach will exponentially increase the knowledge transmission process, with a positive effect on equid welfare.

Objectives
  1. Understand the features of a good/ high welfare cart that is suitable for donkeys and hybrids, that is able to be used for different purposes and manufactured locally. 
  2. Develop a donkey cart prototype, based on simple technological solutions that will have a positive impact on health and welfare of working donkeys and hybrids. 
  3. Develop guidelines about good features of good 2-wheel cart (including safety). 
  4. Develop guidelines focused on the correct use of a 2-wheel cart:o Hitching techniques and harness (1 equid, 2 equids, 3 equids).
    o Pulling capacity of working equids (how much a donkey should pull). 
  5. Develop on-line resources focused on the DIY process of the donkey cart prototype. 
  6. Understand the influence of the position of the cargo and operator in the correct balance of the 2-wheel cart. 
  7. Develop a training programme for carts users: o Equid behaviour; 
    o Human-equid interaction; 
    o Safety. 
  8. Develop the Train the Trainers process for external partners / deliver training to local communities of equids' cart users, that will include all information generated on points 2 to 7.

“We forgot about the donkeys!” An institutional analysis of the shift in animal welfare from direct implementation towards advocacy-based programming

Shifts from direct implementation to advocacy-based programming have been documented across many non-governmental organisation (NGO) sectors, including animal welfare. Semi-structured interviews with 32 staff from different positions within animal welfare NGOs explored recent programming changes. Maintaining a balance between direct implementation and advocacy-based activities emerged as a strong theme. The findings suggest that risks are associated with both the direct implementation status quo and transitioning to an advocacy-based focus. Risks of the former include treating symptoms rather than root causes of welfare problems. Organisational change can be disruptive and necessitates realignment of core competences, in turn influencing NGO mission. Identified risks of transition include loss of individuals whose values fail to align with new programming directions, increased upwards accountability requirements for accessing institutional donors and difficulties when phasing out direct implementation approaches. Whilst having to be dynamic, NGOs need to evaluate the risks associated with programming decisions, considering their vision, mission and staff identity in order to ensure that welfare programming is as effective as possible.

Journal
Volume
33
Issue
9
Publication date
Research output

Sustainability in NGO programming: A case study of working equid welfare organizations

The sustainability of NGO initiatives has become a criterion by which to judge the success of programming. This study explores the conditions needed in order to achieve sustainable change by focusing on a sector that has recently experienced this shift towards more sustainable, interdisciplinary programming: that of working equid (animal welfare) NGOs. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews with 32 NGO staff working for 8 different animal welfare NGOs across 13 countries were conducted. These interviews covered potential barriers and avenues to success in producing sustainable working animal welfare improvements. Thematic analysis revealed consistent themes across contexts and NGOs. Approaches perceived as creating sustainable outcomes were ones that tailored initiatives to local contexts, focused on changing human behaviour, worked with key community contacts, built capacity in local infrastructure, combined approaches, and had comprehensive exit strategies. Barriers to sustainability included lack of continuity, short funding cycles and unpredictable external factors. Consideration of these conditions for designing effective future initiatives is recommended across the wider not-for-profit sector.

Journal
Volume
13
Issue
4
Publication date
Research output

Belief in animal sentience and affective owner attitudes are linked to positive working equid welfare across six countries

Belief in animal sentience and the quality of human-animal relationships play a significant role in animal welfare. However, the link between an individual animal’s welfare and the beliefs and emotional connection of the owner to the animal is understudied and focussed on single cultures, limiting generalisability. In this study, we explored potential links between owner attitude, beliefs in animal sentience, and working equid welfare across four continents. This study used a welfare assessment protocol alongside a questionnaire exploring owner attitudes to assess 378 participants across six countries. Overall, the general health status and body condition of equids belonging to owners with an affective (versus instrumental) perspective and those owners who believed that their equids could feel emotions, were significantly better. Equids belonging to owners who believed that their animals could feel pain were also significantly less likely to be lame. Potential causal relationships between factors and theories explaining these beliefs are discussed. These results can inform future welfare initiatives by highlighting the importance of the human–equid relationship and the role that beliefs regarding animal sentience play in influencing equid welfare.

Publication date
Research output

The welfare and access to veterinary health services of mules working the mountain trails in the Gorkha region, Nepal

Working equid populations are mainly present in low to middle-income countries, their work directly contributing to the lives of people reliant on their presence. Although assistance from working equids is important to support people and their communities in these regions, their welfare is often poor. This study aims to provide insight into the welfare status of mules distributing supplies in the Gorkha region of Nepal; a population of working equids which has been largely overlooked and under recorded. The welfare of mules was assessed via the Equid Assessment Research and Scoping (EARS) tool using a trained assessor; livelihood surveys gathered basic demographic and ownership information; and semi-structured interviews gained the perspectives of 26 key informants. Mule body condition was found to be ideal in many cases, but their management was in the majority of cases inappropriate; characterised by integumentary trauma from equipment use and inhumane handling, unsuitable dietary provision, and insufficient access to water. This difficult situation was compounded by inadequate access to suitably qualified, experienced veterinary professionals able to offer appropriate levels of support. Organisations aiming to improve welfare in these remote locations need a multifaceted approach where owners are facilitated and empowered to improve the welfare of their own equids; in addition, industry professionals are encouraged to improve training and provision within veterinary services

Volume
55
Issue
1
Start page
9
End page
22
Publication date
Research output
Country

“Not all who wander are lost”: The life transitions and associated welfare of pack mules walking the trails in the mountainous Gorkha Region, Nepal

Equids in general experience transient lives where ownership may change multiple times, for working equids this can be more extreme where ownership changes are not only numerous but abrupt, and situations encountered prove difficult, diverse and tough for equids to adapt. In this study, we investigate the life cycle of pack mules in Nepal, investigating the challenges they face during their lives through to end of life. To gain insight into the lives of mules, we conducted semi-structured interviews and livelihood surveys with 27 key informants, gathering the perspectives of the people working with mules. Welfare assessments of the mules were undertaken via the Equid Assessment Research and Scoping tool (EARS) by a trained assessor. Mules had to adapt swiftly to changes in industry type, enduring long distance transportation in overloaded vehicles and across country borders with no checks for biosecurity or welfare. Mules had to show swift adaptation to their new environment, to respond to and learn new tasks via inhumanely administered training, using inappropriate techniques, delivered by owners lacking in understanding of mule behaviour and learning. Environmental conditions were often hard; the negotiation of difficult terrain and challenging weather conditions during monsoon and subsequent high-altitude working without acclimatisation likely pushed mules to their biological limits. This study investigates the lives of a population of mules in the mountains of Nepal, developing a better understanding of their needs and their ‘truth’ or ‘telos’ informing what measures will help them to thrive.

Journal
Volume
12
Issue
22
Start page
3152
Publication date
Research output
Country

One welfare: Linking poverty, equid ownership and equid welfare in the brick kilns of India

The brick kilns in India are associated with extremely low pay, poor working conditions and a lack of regulation. Equids, however, may provide a route out of poverty by enabling workers to access a higher income. The relatively higher financial returns from healthy equids could also motivate welfare improvements. We used a mixed-methods approach including livelihoods questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and welfare assessments to investigate the links between poverty, equid ownership and equid welfare in the brick kilns of Ahmedabad, India. Whilst equid owners earned more than non-owners during the kiln season, the opposite trend was found for these workers for work conducted outside of the kilns during the off-season. Equid ownership was, however, strongly influenced by social factors and, within certain communities, equid ownership may be the only viable escape from extreme poverty. In terms of welfare, equid behaviour was better for owners with better financial security, likely due to the availability of resources. Equid health improved with longevity of ownership, suggesting that owners who view working with their equids as a long-term partnership are more likely to ensure their equids are kept in good health. For stakeholders aiming to improve both human health and equid welfare, a 'one welfare' approach which values the intrinsic connections between poverty and both equid ownership and equid welfare could greatly increase success.

Journal
Volume
31
Issue
4
Start page
517
End page
528
Publication date
Research output
Country

Control and prevention of epizootic lymphangitis in mules: an integrated community-based intervention, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

From 2010 to 2017, as part of a wider animal welfare program, The Donkey Sanctuary piloted an integrated, community-based model for the control and prevention of epizootic lymphangitis (EZL) in cart mules in Bahir Dar, Ethiopia. Stakeholders included muleteers, service providers, and transport and animal health regulatory authorities. Interventions included muleteer education, wound prevention, harness improvement, animal health professional training, treatment of early EZL cases, euthanasia for advanced cases, and review of transport services and traffic guidelines. The project followed a participatory project management cycle and used participatory learning and action tools to facilitate stakeholder engagement and ownership. Participatory and classical epidemiology tools were employed to raise and align stakeholder understanding about EZL for effective control and prevention and to evaluate the progress impact of the model through annual prevalence surveys. During the intervention, the annual prevalence of EZL reduced from 23.9% (102/430) (95%CI: 19.8%−27.0%) in 2010 to 5.9% (58/981) (95% CI: 4.4%−7.4%) in 2017, and wound prevalence from 44.3% in 2011 to 22.2% in 2017; trends in the reduction of the prevalence maintained in the face of a mule population that increased from 430 in 2010 to ~1,500 in 2017. While non-governmental organization (NGO)-led interventions can facilitate change by trialing new approaches and accessing new skills and resources, sustainable change requires community ownership and strengthening of service provision systems. To this effect, the project raised muleteer competence in mule husbandry and EZL prevention strategies; strengthened veterinary competence; facilitated more mule-friendly traffic, transport, and waste disposal guidelines and practices; supported mule-community bylaws to control EZL; and established a supportive network between stakeholders including trusting relationships between muleteers and veterinary services. To advance the intervention model in other endemic areas, we recommend elucidation of local epidemiological factors with other stakeholders prior to the intervention, early engagement with veterinary and transport service regulatory authorities, early development of bylaws, exploration of compensation or insurance mechanisms to support euthanasia of advanced cases, and additional social, economic, and epidemiological investigations. In line with the OIE Working Equid Welfare Standards, we suggest that integrated community-based interventions are useful approaches to the control and prevention of infectious diseases.

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Research output
Country

Evaluation of long-term welfare initiatives on working equid welfare and social transmission of knowledge in Mexico

Working equids play an essential role in supporting livelihoods, providing resilience and income security to people around the world, yet their welfare is often poor. Consequently, animal welfare focussed NGOs employ a range of initiatives aimed at improving standards of working equid welfare. However, there is debate surrounding the efficacy of welfare initiatives utilised and long term monitoring and evaluation of initiatives is rarely undertaken. This study compares equid welfare and the social transmission of welfare information across Mexican communities that had previously received differing intervention histories (veterinary treatment plus educational initiatives, veterinary treatment only and control communities) in order to assess their efficacy. Indicators of equid welfare were assessed using the Equid Assessment Research and Scoping tool and included body condition score, skin alterations, lameness, general health status and reaction to observer approach. Owners were interviewed about their involvement in previous welfare initiatives, beliefs regarding equid emotions and pain, and the social transmission of welfare knowledge, including whether they ask advice about their equid or discuss its health with others and whether there is a specific individual that they consider to be ‘good with equids’ in their community. In total 266 owners were interviewed from 25 communities across three states. Better welfare (specifically body condition and skin alteration scores) was seen in communities where a history of combined free veterinary treatment and educational initiatives had taken place compared to those that had only received veterinary treatment or control communities. The social transfer of welfare knowledge was also higher in these communities, suggesting that the discussion and transfer of equid welfare advice within communities can act as a mechanism to disseminate good welfare practices more widely. Our results suggest that using a combined approach may enhance the success of welfare initiatives, a finding that may impact future NGO programming.

Journal
Publication date
Research output
Country
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