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Equids are engaged in myriad types of work across the world, with contexts and industries varying widely between high-, middle- and low-income countries as classified by the World Bank. Through a comprehensive abstract search and literature review, we examined the usage and context of terms associated with working equids in high-income countries (HICs), upper-middle-income countries (UMICs), lower-middle-income countries (LMICs), and low-income countries (LICs). Analysis showed that the search term used was significantly associated with World Bank country income classification. All search terms except two returned a significantly higher number of papers for higher-income countries compared to lower-income countries. The two exceptions were “working equid” and “draft equid”, which returned significantly more papers for lower-income countries than higher-income countries. Both terms also returned papers from high-income and upper-middle-income countries, but these were always in the context of low-resource settings and rural or marginalised communities, of which we provide examples in the discussion. We propose that the term “working equid” should be used to describe “any equid engaged in physical labour that provides a significant or direct contribution to the economic livelihood, sustenance or support of the owner/user’s family, typically within a low resource setting”. Our review highlights the intricate interplay between socioeconomic factors and examines how equids are described in the literature. The lack of a universally accepted definition leads to challenges in policy formulation, resource allocation, and welfare standards development, particularly in LMICs and LICs where working equids are crucial to livelihoods. This study underscores the need for a more inclusive and comprehensive approach to terminology, advocating for future research to bridge linguistic and cultural gaps in understanding working equids globally. Such efforts are vital for equitable and effective welfare standards and policy development for these animals.

This article explores how gendered divisions of labour manifest across species lines. It applies a feminist, more-than-human intersectional approach, building on previous work on animal labour. The vital labour donkeys do with and for humans and their contributions to multispecies societies have been under-recognised and under-theorised. Drawing on empirical research conducted in central Ethiopia on the human-donkey relationship, findings reveal the multiple ways human gender and class coalesce to shape the kinds of labour performed and social relations among women, men, and donkeys across urban and rural environments. At the nexus of these intersecting forces, equivalence is drawn, by research participants themselves, between women and donkeys. Women and donkeys are aligned and othered, differentiated from men, a dynamic that results in the feminisation of donkeys and mutual marginalisation of women and donkeys and exposes male violence perpetrated on both groups. The article contributes empirical insights into human-donkey relations and interspecies labour and offers theoretical considerations of more-than-human intersectionality.

Objective

To clinically evaluate previously developed pain scales [Donkey Chronic Pain Composite Pain Scale (DCP-CPS), Donkey Chronic Pain Facial Assessment of Pain (DCP-FAP), and combined Donkey Chronic Pain Scale (DCPS)], including behavioural and facial expression related variables, for the assessment of chronic pain in donkeys.

Study design

Prospective, blinded clinical study.

Animal population

A group of 77 donkeys (34 patients and 43 healthy control animals)

Methods

Animals were assessed by two observers that were blinded to the condition of the animals.

Results

Both DCP composite pain scale (CPS), DCP facial assessment of pain (FAP) and resulting Donkey Chronic Pain Scale (DCPS) scores showed good inter-observer reliability (Intra Class Correlation (ICC) coefficient = 0.91, confidence interval (CI) = 0.86–0.95, p < 0.001; ICC = 0.71, CI = 0.50–0.83, p < 0.001 and ICC = 0.84, CI = 0.72–0.91, p < 0.001 respectively). All scores (DCP-CPS, DCP-FAP and the resulting combined DCPS) were significantly higher for patients compared to controls at all time points (p < 0.001 for all three scales). Sensitivity and specificity for identification of pain (cut-off value > 3) was 73.0 and 65.1% for DCP-CPS, while for DCP-FAP this was 60.9% and 83.3%, respectively. For the combined DCPS, sensitivity was 87.0% and specificity 90.9% (cut-off value > 6).

Conclusions and clinical relevance

The DCPS, based on behavioural and facial expression-based variables, proved a promising and reproducible tool to assess different types of chronic pain in donkeys. The combination of behavioural and facial expression-based variables showed the best discriminatory characteristics in the current study. Further studies are needed for refinement of these tools.

Shifts from direct implementation to advocacy-based programming have been documented across many non-governmental organisation (NGO) sectors, including animal welfare. Semi-structured interviews with 32 staff from different positions within animal welfare NGOs explored recent programming changes. Maintaining a balance between direct implementation and advocacy-based activities emerged as a strong theme. The findings suggest that risks are associated with both the direct implementation status quo and transitioning to an advocacy-based focus. Risks of the former include treating symptoms rather than root causes of welfare problems. Organisational change can be disruptive and necessitates realignment of core competences, in turn influencing NGO mission. Identified risks of transition include loss of individuals whose values fail to align with new programming directions, increased upwards accountability requirements for accessing institutional donors and difficulties when phasing out direct implementation approaches. Whilst having to be dynamic, NGOs need to evaluate the risks associated with programming decisions, considering their vision, mission and staff identity in order to ensure that welfare programming is as effective as possible.

Background 

This is the first report of Besnoitia bennetti in donkeys in Ireland. B. bennetti, an apicomplexan protozoan parasite specifc to equids, is an emerging pathogen in Europe. This parasite forms chronic intracytoplasmic cysts in cells of the mesenchymal lineage, mainly fbroblasts, in the skin, sclera and mucosa. Clinical signs in afected equine hosts vary from mild to severe debilitating disease. Little is known of the phylogeny, epidemiology or transmission of B. bennetti infection in donkeys, mules or horses. 

Case presentation 

Two cases of besnoitiosis in donkeys are presented. Both donkeys were born and raised in the south west of Ireland. The first case was a 2.5-year-old donkey that had a suspect sarcoid removed, while the second case, a 2-year-old donkey, had a biopsy of nodular dermatitis of the muzzle. Diagnosis was made by histopathology and the parasite species, B. bennetti, was confirmed by PCR followed by sequencing and microsatellite analysis. Both donkeys had high antibody titres against Besnoitia spp. Small (0.5 mm) scleral, conjunctival and dermal cysts over the muzzle were subsequently observed in both animals. Treatment with trimethoprim sulfadiazine for 30 days did not lead to clinical resolution. The fndings are compared to the cases of besnoitiosis in donkeys reported in the past 10 years throughout Europe. 

Conclusions 

Besnoitiosis should be considered as a differential diagnosis for chronic skin disease particularly in cases of cutaneous masses, non-pruritic dermatitis, and dermatitis that is not responsive to treatment in donkeys and other equids. Future studies are needed to investigate the prevalence of the disease in Irish donkeys, the spread of the disease and the potential impact on the health and welfare of the donkeys.

The sustainability of NGO initiatives has become a criterion by which to judge the success of programming. This study explores the conditions needed in order to achieve sustainable change by focusing on a sector that has recently experienced this shift towards more sustainable, interdisciplinary programming: that of working equid (animal welfare) NGOs. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews with 32 NGO staff working for 8 different animal welfare NGOs across 13 countries were conducted. These interviews covered potential barriers and avenues to success in producing sustainable working animal welfare improvements. Thematic analysis revealed consistent themes across contexts and NGOs. Approaches perceived as creating sustainable outcomes were ones that tailored initiatives to local contexts, focused on changing human behaviour, worked with key community contacts, built capacity in local infrastructure, combined approaches, and had comprehensive exit strategies. Barriers to sustainability included lack of continuity, short funding cycles and unpredictable external factors. Consideration of these conditions for designing effective future initiatives is recommended across the wider not-for-profit sector.

Established representations of donkeys in western literature and popular culture have often been negative, portraying the animals as stupid, inept, and bad tempered. To understand whether such representations are reflected in contemporary understandings of donkeys, we constructed a digitized body of texts (a corpus) from contemporary (public-facing) news articles and (public-produced) social media posts about donkeys, which we analyzed using quantitative and qualitative language analysis techniques drawn from corpus linguistics and discourse analysis. We supplemented this with focus groups conducted with members of the public to gather insights and reflections on key patterns of representation in two key news texts identified in the linguistic analysis. This combined approach, which is novel in its application to animal welfare topics, revealed that donkeys are most commonly represented as figures of entertainment, ridicule, and as victims of hardship and suffering (i.e., animals in need). We argue that such representations can sideline, obscure and “invisibilize” the real animals, leading to persistent misunderstandings and false conceptions about donkeys, which are further perpetuated through language use and can be difficult to disrupt and change. These findings have important implications for animal welfare, education programs, and public communication about donkeys. Finally, we highlight areas where incorrect, unhelpful, and potentially damaging representations can be challenged by those seeking to improve the contemporary status of donkeys.

Belief in animal sentience and the quality of human-animal relationships play a significant role in animal welfare. However, the link between an individual animal’s welfare and the beliefs and emotional connection of the owner to the animal is understudied and focussed on single cultures, limiting generalisability. In this study, we explored potential links between owner attitude, beliefs in animal sentience, and working equid welfare across four continents. This study used a welfare assessment protocol alongside a questionnaire exploring owner attitudes to assess 378 participants across six countries. Overall, the general health status and body condition of equids belonging to owners with an affective (versus instrumental) perspective and those owners who believed that their equids could feel emotions, were significantly better. Equids belonging to owners who believed that their animals could feel pain were also significantly less likely to be lame. Potential causal relationships between factors and theories explaining these beliefs are discussed. These results can inform future welfare initiatives by highlighting the importance of the human–equid relationship and the role that beliefs regarding animal sentience play in influencing equid welfare.

Slavery, in the form of ‘debt-bondage’, is rife in Indian brick kilns, where the enforcement of labour laws is poor. Working equids support brick-kiln workers by transporting raw bricks into the kilns, but the situation of equids and their owners within the brick kilns is relatively unknown. We describe the welfare of donkeys (Equus asinus) owned under conditions of debt-bondage, examine the links between owner and donkey behaviour, and outline the living conditions of both donkeys and humans working in the brick kilns of Gujarat, India. We then explore the unique experience of debt-bondage by donkey owners, compare migration trends to those of non-donkey-owning workers and assess impacts on their children’s education. The physical and behavioural conditions of donkeys reflected that of their owners, creating negative feedback loops and potentially reducing productivity. All donkey owners experienced debt-bondage and were particularly vulnerable to unexpected financial loss. Donkey owners, unlike non-owners, migrated within their home state, enabling their children to attend school. Our work highlights the need for policy reform within the brick-kiln industry to acknowledge the pivotal role of working donkeys in supporting human livelihoods.

Increased demand for the supply of donkey hides for use in the Traditional Chinese Medicine e’jiao, is leading to a re-appraisal of donkeys’ contributions to livelihoods across the world. This research aimed to understand the utilitarian value donkeys provide to poor small holder farmers, especially women, in their efforts to make a living in two rural communities in northern Ghana. Uniquely, children and donkey butchers were interviewed for the first time about their donkeys. A qualitative thematic analysis was undertaken of data disaggregated by sex, age and donkey-ownership. The majority of protocols were repeated during a second visit, ensuring comparative data between one wet, and one dry season. Donkeys are more important in people’s lives than had previously been recognised and are highly valued by their owners for their help in reducing drudgery and the multi-functional services they offer. Hiring out donkeys to generate income is a secondary role for people who own donkeys, especially women. However, for financial and cultural reasons the way donkeys are kept results in the loss of a certain percentage of the animals to the donkey meat market, as well as the global hides trade. Increasing demand for donkey meat, coupled with increasing demand for donkeys for farming, is leading to donkey price inflation and theft of donkeys. This is putting pressure on the donkey population of neighbouring Burkina Faso and pricing resource-poor non-donkey owners out of the market. E’jiao has put the spotlight on the value of dead donkeys for the first time, especially to governments and middlemen. This study shows that the value of live donkeys to poor farming households is substantial. It attempts to understand and document this value thoroughly, should the majority of donkeys in West Africa be rounded up and slaughtered for the value of their meat and skin instead.